Critical Paper A Rose for Emily

In the story of â€Å"A Rose for Emily†, a kind of point of view that is used was first point of view of multiple characters where the narrator is one of the characters in the story. The multiple characters narrate the actions of a group of characters while never referring to a â€Å"me† and only to a â€Å"we† of the group. It was evident that the narrator was one of the townspeople who were very objective in presenting the facts of the story. He told us about what the townspeople think of Miss Emily but he didn’t judge her. He clearly presented a reality, not an illusion in which Miss Emily was the one who’s really struggling with the concept of reality vs. illusion and also living one way while hiding a terrible secret (reality vs. appearance). One of the main themes of the story is that people should let go of their past, moving on with the present so that they can prepare to welcome their future. Emily was the proof of a person who always lived on the shadow of the past because she was afraid of changing. She did not accept the passage of time throughout all her life, keeping everything she loved in the past with her. The first evident was about the description of Grierson’s house which was still remained like a symbol of seventieth century while the society was changing every minute. The second evident was the event that Miss Emily declined to pay taxes because in her mind, her family was powerful and they didn't have to pay any taxes in the town of Jefferson and the third was the fact that Miss Emily had kept her father’s death body inside the house and didn’t allow burying him. And last evident which was also the most interesting of this story, the discovery of Homer Barron's skeleton in the secret room which can be understood that Miss Emily was afraid that he would leave her and she decided to kill him because she was afraid of losing him. Another theme of the story is that not all things, people, and events are always what they appears to be, which was associated and expressed many times throughout the story. The townspeople viewed Miss Emily as a strange old woman. Not until after her death when the men opened the secret room and found the corpse of Homer Barron, did the citizens and the reader realized that Miss Emily had gone insane.

The Night the Power Went Out

THE NIGHT THE POWER WENT OUT! It was a dark rainy night; the rain came down hard, sheet upon sheet, of bone chilling rain. I lay relaxed on the couch watching a horror movie when suddenly there was a loud crack of thunder and then there I lay all alone in complete darkness. I felt a little nervous but hazardously made my way to the kitchen by the guidance of the moons light. I went in search of a torch and found one on the kitchen table. I flicked it on and at that precise moment I heard a crash from above. I started to make my way towards the stairs; torch clutched tightly in one hand and a gun in the other. As I ascended the stairs I felt an ice cold gust of wind which made me tremble all over. As I reached the second floor I found that the window was no more but shattered glass on the ground. I spun around in search of the perpetrator. As I made my way towards the shattered window something powerful tackled me and knocked the breath right out of me. I started to collapse to the ground; this sent my torch and my gun flying through the air and land in complete darkness. I turned towards my attacker and gasped in shock. It seemed like a vicious, four eyed beast with long fangs which looked like it was craving flesh; my flesh. I searched along the ground for a weapon that may assist me and to my relief I came across a sharp object. It was the shards of broken glass from the window. I grasped it tightly and started to stab the beast ferociously. Its skin was hard but I could feel the glass piercing it and its unusually thick blood oozing down my arm. I felt its hot putrid breath upon my face as it growled viciously revealing rows upon rows of sharp yellow teeth. It started to back away but I could see that it was preparing for one final attack. The moon lit up the entire room with an array of bright light and I managed to spot the gun. I made a dive for it and at the same time the beast made a dive for me. It ripped through my leg with is enormous teeth as I grabbed the gun. BANG! I heard a loud yelp and found the beast staggering backwards. BANG! BANG! The beast now lay sprawled on the floor motionless. I picked myself up feeling rather traumatised and with a huge cut on my leg, I limped myself to the phone but someone or something had chewed it to bits. I limped towards the open window and it was as if a cloud of fear was cast through my whole body. My heart was beating faster than ever because down on my lawn there lay hundreds of four eyed, flesh eating beasts. I patched my leg up and gathered my torch and a lot of guns and made my way through the darkness of my home. As I reached the entrance I thought, â€Å"I have 2 options. I can stay here and wait for the beasts to feast on my flesh or I can give them a fight worth living for. † I kicked the door open and yelled, â€Å"If I’m going to die at least I’m going to die fighting†, and as the beasts closed in I got my guns out and now the real fight for survival began. BANG! BANG! BANG! THE END!

Biggest CHallenge

Biggest CHallenge Rodriguez Creative Song Assignment The Creative Song Assignment was an Interesting assignment, because I have zero experience in mixing music. It was an Interesting experience, because It did take me out of my comfort zone. When I first started, I felt lost. I had no Idea what I was doing, so I decided to do a little research to see how I can best complete this assignment. I finally settled on using a program called Audacity and the genres of hip hop and alternative rock. I chose a program called audacity, because It gives you an option of milling different songs.I am sure that there are a lot of other programs better suited for this assignment, but I found this to be pretty easy to use. I really enjoyed playing around Ninth the different settings. It took me a couple of days before I finally picked two songs to work on. I am sure that there are many more experienced people out there that can mix my songs better than me, but I think I did a good job considering my experience level. I decide to pick hip hop and alternative rock, because they are two of my favorite genres. I know that hip hop and alternative rock have been mixed before, so I felt an intrigue in trying to accomplish this myself. I knew that I wanted to use Arrowheads Karma Police as my alternative, because that is one of my favorite songs. I had a difficult time picking a rap song, because the lyrics did not match up well together. I finally decided to Just use a hip hop beat that I found on concluded. In my opinion, I felt that this was best, because you can hear the lyrics of the alternative song, but still hear the hip hop beat. The part that took me a while was trying to get the songs in sync perfectly. I really wanted to find a way to lower the alternative rock songs instrumentals, but I could not do it.I think it would have sounded better if I could mix the hip hop beat with the Karma Police vocals. I am sure it could probably be done lath professional mixing equipment. I really enjoyed this assignment, because It did what it was designed to do. It really took me out of my comfort zone. I started off being completely lost, but I slowly started gaining confidence as I practiced more with the software. I know that the finished product is not too great, but I think It was good considering that I have never done this before.

Managing in the service environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Managing in the service environment - Essay Example Nowadays exporting of services is an expanding business. India is currently recognized as the largest services exporter in the world. Services sector comprises 70% proportion of the total output in the world but only 20percentage proportion of the same is incorporated in world’s international trade. Thus exporting of services is an under developed industry. India’s experience reveals that development of economies is not necessarily lead by the industrialization. Services sector driven economic development is also possible. India moved from being an agriculture based economy to services based economy without involving industrialization (The Nation). Therefore identifying the issues relating the companies in the services sector has become rather important to the development of countries. It has been revealed that the service quality in British banks is substantially low. Customers are increasingly dissatisfied by the banking experiences in England (Johnston, 1997). Such i ssues and increasingly identifying economic significance has called for challenging research studies relating the service quality. 1. Introduction of Customer Service Customer service plays an important role in building the brand loyalty. â€Å"Loyal and an involved customer† is an asset to a company. Developing such a customer base is recognized as the aim of â€Å"customer service† by most of the modern day businesses. ... Part of the contemporary businesses’ everyday mission is to cultivate consumer relationships by strengthening emotional connection with the customer. Listening to customers through rigorous consumer research and strong consumer orientation by keeping the products relevant and appealing are important elements in customer service. 2. Introduction of Service Quality Service quality is defined as "the extent of discrepancy between customers' expectations or desires and their perception of what is delivered" (Zeithaml et. al., 1990). According to the SERVQUAL approach the spheres of service quality can be described in terms of (1) Tangibles: â€Å"Appearance of physical facilities, equipment, personnel and communication materials"(2) Reliability: "Ability of the organization to perform the promised service dependably and accurately. (3) Responsiveness: "Willingness of organization’s staff to help customers and provide them with prompt service"(4) Assurance: "Knowledge, comp etence and courtesy of employees and their ability to convey trust and confidence in the customer towards the service firm" and (5) Empathy: "Caring, individualized attention the firm provided its customers" (Manjunatha and Shivalingaiah, 2004). Thus it can be seen that customers’ expectations from a services based company includes attributes of physical environment as well as the human resources. Physical capital of the company has to be appealing and convenient to the consumer. Contemporary businesses use this concept as a marketing strategy and invest substantial amounts of resources to build the physical environment of their companies. Example: modern stores are carefully designed to reflect the image of the company brand. The showcases and environment of these stores are specifically

Compare the nazi system of governance with that of the United States Research Paper

Compare the nazi system of governance with that of the United States - Research Paper Example Nazi’s system of governance is Fascist, Totalitarian state type, and United States is a republic federal system (executive in nature) (Avery p.133). The two systems of governance (Nazi and United States) have shared and differing characteristics and this research paper will be a comparison between the two systems of governance. Nazis Totalitarianism and Fascism was a system of governance where dictatorship is dominant, and societal resources are monopolized by the state by using tactics like technology, terror and propaganda. The governance within the state was based on hierarchies that were fully dominated by one political party having one single leader. The one party system does penetrate the entire country using provisional and regional organizations. The leader in this type of system or regime focuses in mobilizing and making use of political participation, groups and communities are lead by local or regional leaders who are charismatic in outlining and championing their l eader’s promises and praises (Mullender pp. 178). The system reflects an aspect of extreme Nationalism which aimed at bringing about uniformity of all the German speaking citizens into one single unitary nation. The economy in Nazis system of governance was based on socialism, a form of corporate type of togetherness. The basis of socialism is that no competition is created and nobody suffers as all the wealth, resources were shared publically together. The Nazism system is based on the use of paramilitary institutions, the institution is created and instituted in order to scare, discourage and subdue opposition parties and maintain party supremacy (Rittberger pp.35). Examples of such paramilitaries include: storm troopers, defense corps, and secret state police. The type of governance system is based on massive use of spies and propaganda, and the philosophy of Elitism is also applied in running the state and other institutions. Elitism involves a process where just few soci al groups or individuals are given the power and authority to lead or rule. In United States, a type of republic government is applied with features of a federal system. The federal system is a system of governance where the state as divided the government into three branches and functions. Each of the branch having its own powers or authorities, but all the branches are been provide with checks and balances that ensures a regulation of reign of superiority with the purpose of legislation, execution and judicial functions. In legislation branch is given the responsibility of making federal laws and consists of senate and house of representations. The executive is given is given the job of enforcing and executing laws of the government. The judicial branch is to apply and interpret laws that are presented to them. The country is a republic because the people have been vested authority democratically to elect and recall back their leaders (Shefter pp.48). The republic or federal syste m is based on popular sovereignty which states that the entire whole power of the government lies on the people. The government needs to address the rights and needs of the people. The power and authority is invested on laws and acts provided by the people of the country and they must be adhered to fully. The basis of checks and balances is helpful in federal system so that one of the three branches of government does not become powerful or misuse any power or authority accorded to them (Shefter

Deterrence and containment during Cold War Essay

Deterrence and containment during Cold War - Essay Example It should be noted that in the beginning of the 15th century, there were limited number of pigments that were allowing the painters to capture the inner beliefs as stated in the religious guidance. Therefore that was an avid need of pigments that can create fixtures of paintings as well as the texture surface. This need was felt by Tibetans as well as Kashmiri. However, the fact remains that these painters were not able to understand as to what changes were important to be added initially. In order to fully practice Menri style (with sharp streaks of textures, and swirl form of drawing paint) Tibetans developed new philosophy and image building for deities as explained by Indian Pundits3. Exemplary Thangka Paintings: The most profound innovation or development within the Thangka painting was noted during the era of 1500s. Choying Gysto is said to be the master of pigments that redefined the religious figures in a completely new manner. It was much needed because a lot of contribution was not able to make a specific change in the style of painting4. Figure 2 Menri style painting (Gerd-Wolfgang 1989) The core style, which is evident from the painting of Gysto is Menri. Other famous names of the era include Namka Tashi who actually able to bring a new thought in the painting of Thangka. However, he was very strict in the context of making fixed proportions. It has often been said that Namka was able to bring innovation in the style of painting because he actually saw the revelation of Dorjey’s (Chinese emperor) in the full moon. That is why he drew him with strong faith. Specifically, the three obvious styles which can be noted in the painting of Namka were Karma Gadri, Chinese... The most profound innovation or development within the Thangka painting was noted during the era of 1500s. Choying Gysto is said to be the master of pigments that redefined the religious figures in a completely new manner. It was much needed because a lot of contribution was not able to make a specific change in the style of painting . The core style, which is evident from the painting of Gysto is Menri. Other famous names of the era include Namka Tashi who actually able to bring a new thought in the painting of Thangka. However, he was very strict in the context of making fixed proportions. It has often been said that Namka was able to bring innovation in the style of painting because he actually saw the revelation of Dorjey’s (Chinese emperor) in the full moon. That is why he drew him with strong faith. Specifically, the three obvious styles which can be noted in the painting of Namka were Karma Gadri, Chinese form with rich texture and Indian form of strokes. It will not be incorrect to state that he made use of Mensar style in his paintings as well . Following painting can help us understanding the style of Namka.

An Ounce Of Cure By Alice Munro and A Good Man Is Hard To Find by Essay

An Ounce Of Cure By Alice Munro and A Good Man Is Hard To Find by Flannery OConnor - Essay Example The narration is from the third person, but the story is centered on grandmother. She is the one, who is described the most, who’s thought and actions are given more attention. Other characters seems not as important to the story, and others are downplayed so much so that the reader hardly notices they are there, like children’s mother, who seems to wear the same clothes all through the story, she hardly talks, her name is unknown. As to contrast, the grandmother is very particular in her choice of clothing; she is a real â€Å"lady†. However it seems children do not like her so much. The story takes place in Georgia, even though no specific place mentioned. During the second half of the story the characters are mainly in the â€Å"ditch†, only sometime people are taken to the forest. The story keeps the reader in suspense. It starts with an argument in the beginning as to what place they will go for vacation – Florida or Tennessee. The old lady rea lly wants to go to Tennessee, so she uses all the arguments possible to convince her son to head that direction. Then she attempts to talk to her daughter-in-law, but the mother seems to be utterly uninterested in what grandmother has to say.

Aniconism and the Multivalence of Emblems Assignment

Aniconism and the Multivalence of Emblems - Assignment Example Huntington has her own view on this question. She believes that many of the images associated with Buddha's absence—such as an empty throne—are in fact intended to mean something else. The empty throne, for example, was intended to represent the â€Å"sacred nuclei of worship† at religious sites and not the fact of Buddha's absence on that throne (Huntington, 402). Her new research suggests that inscriptions on these images indicate that many of the so-called images are more quotidian representations of sacred sites. Vidya Dehejia has a different view of these questions. He believes that scholars have overlooked the double-meanings of many words in the ancient scripts. He thinks that someone like Huntington has been too literal. He admits that some scholars have gone too far in their interpretations, but that some images do indeed depict the absence of Buddha. He suggests that the emblems of many images â€Å"may carry different meanings in varying contexts† and that scholars should be sensitive to this (Dehejia, 64). The debate over the absence or presence of Buddha in early Buddhist art is a fascinating one. Both scholars present convincing arguments. Whether we will ever know the truth remains an open question.   

Literature review including a research methodology, Objectives and Dissertation

Literature review including a research methodology, Objectives and research. Tobic (Internationalization) - Dissertation Example The University of Bradford is one organization that seeks to go the international way as a way of expanding its market share with the added advantage of increasing its profits among other benefits. However, there is a high risk associated with the internationalization of organizations evident in the number of organizations that have failed in the process. Some of the main challenges associated with internationalization is the complexity of the process of going international, the high costs involved and the complexity of managing internationalized entities. Objectives of the Study 1. To determine how feasible it is for the University of Bradford to internationalize 2. To determine the key issues that the University of Bradford will have to deal with in its internationalization 3. To establish the best strategy that the University of Bradford can adopt to successfully go through the internationalization process Research questions In achieving the objectives of this study, a number of q uestions will have to be answered. The following are the research questions for this project. 1. How feasible it is for the University of Bradford to internationalize? 2. What are the key issues that the University of Bradford will have to deal with in its internationalization process? 3. What strategies can the University of Bradford adopt in its bid to go through the internationalization process? 4. ... Reasons behind the Internationalization of Organizations Most economies thrive on the notion of imports and exports. Penetration into the foreign market is one of the major reasons why firms are venturing into internalization (Taylor, Walker and Beaverstock, 2002). In the 21st century, a lot of firms and businesses have been involved in international markets. Companies have been looking for ways to maximise their productivity and profitability by tapping into markets other the ones in their own home base of operations. There are different theories that have been formulated to explain the increase in international activities among different firms all across the world (Gankema, Snuif and Zwart, 2000). The absolute cost advantage is an internationalization theory that propagates the idea that institutions and firms should specialize in those products in which they have a sure advantage. This theory was popularised by Adam Smith and it implies that if a company can make a product without having to spend a lot in terms of costs per production unit (Welch and Welch, 1996). This view supports the idea that companies that have a comparative advantage do not have to have an absolute advantage to prosper in a market. Companies therefore internationalize so as to gain from comparative advantage (Taylor, Walker and Beaverstock, 2002). The prospects of new markets are another major driving force for internationalization. Internationalization opens up many opportunities for business, big and small. Advances in technology have led to the development of production techniques which ensure that companies can mass produce (Vahlne and Nordstrom, 1993). As a result, many of these companies have ventured into the international scene in search of new markets in which to sell

Human resources management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Human resources management - Case Study Example In higher developing countries like China, customers are facing late deliveries and bad services because of the dealers. Apart from few verified dealers, majority of others are inefficient and incapable of proper servicing. As a result, high end customers often get distraught due to these lazy and inefficient deals. Considering the current issues in China as the foundation, the case study will evaluate the establishment and milestones achieved by Benz in China. Then the case will move on to describe the incidences which led to the overall decrease of sales performance in China (Barchan, 1999). The evaluation of experiences and evidences and analysis of the case will lead to various future strategies. These strategies as well as those selected for the long term growth and development of the automobile company will also be discussed. Behind the Scenes: The Firm Mercedes-Benz is a German brand known for its high quality motor vehicles for business and private customers. Their era starte d in the year 1886 when Karl Benz created the first petrol-powered car. Right now Mercedes-Benz is an international company with factories all around the globe and employs more than 100 000 people. The company is also involved in providing associated primary services. It is currently headquartered in Stuttgart, Germany. The company is famous for its sports and lifestyles vehicles. The organization provides a supportive work environment for its employees. In order to ensure that, employees consider the brand as best place to work, the company engages in various developmental programmes, performance appraisals, insurance and health care benefits programmes, outdoor activities tec. Being in automotive sector, the overall organizational structure of Benz is complex. A separate team handles every region around the globe. Constant communication is required between the marketing and production team. Thus, overall structure of the organization can be considered as lateral and open. Section 2 The Story The year 2012 proved to be bad year for Mercedes Benz. The German carmaker slipped from numero uno to further to third position in the luxury car segment. The performance in China had deteriorated further. In spite of the sharp increase in sales of luxury cars, Benz posted a meagre growth of 4 percent. Further research into the matter exposed two critical factors. First was the poor quality of the cars. After complaints from consumers regarding faulty vehicle parts and hazardous interior materials, the company had to recall many of its vehicles. Another issue which came into light was low quality of customer service. This was evident from the huge number of customer complaints posted over internet in the past two years. The after sales service of the German car maker did not meet its expected brand image. Customer complaints were also found in case of imported Benz cars and the poor quality of the C and E class Benz cars. As a result, the overall rating of Mercedes-Benz in customer service fell way beyond industry average. This was more so in case of China, where it fell below local Chinese brands such as Geely, Roewe and Chery. As the company failed to

Departments Differ from People-Oriented Departments Essay Example for Free

Departments Differ from People-Oriented Departments Essay There are a number of differences between action-oriented and people-oriented HRM departments. One of the most distinctive differences lays in the approach that each of the different methods take to the role of human resources. Its important to note that a good HRM department is both people and action-oriented. An action-oriented HRM is one that seeks to further the organization by solving problems through taking actions. These actions are typically resolved based on a set of rational actions and not on a set of strict policies and procedures. The action-oriented department is all about people and how the HRM department can work to solve the problems of those individuals. An example would be an HRM team that has a recruiting department that is focused simply on bringing in new individuals to the organization. The lack of standard record keeping doesnt mean that adequate records are not kept it simply means that the department is focused primarily on progress and not on procedures. An example of a company that falls under an action-oriented HRM is Exxon Mobile. The difference in the people-oriented HRM department is that the entire focus of the HR team is on the individual and how those individuals can benefit the organization. It takes a slightly different approach as it is more proactive than reactive. The reason is that a people-oriented HRM department focuses on the talents and skills of individuals in the organization and how those skills can best be used in the organization. By matching employees and skills to problems that must be addressed within the organization the HRM team serves to provide a strategic advantage in that HRM is leading rather than simply dealing with reactionary problems or employees who may be unhappy in their current roles. An example of people-oriented HRM is the assessment of individual skills by which assignments will be presented. A good company example of people-oriented HRM is Apple Computer. While both methods are valid they do take a different approach to how HRM is handled. The method that is used will be determined by the senior HRM director which will set the role of HRM and how it will be managed in the individual organization. Finally, it should be noted that action-oriented and people-oriented HRM are not mutually exclusive and some organizations may function better with one method over another depending on the type of business.

Importance of Brands and Branding

Importance of Brands and Branding Abstract Repetitive failures cost companies millions of dollars in redesign costs, liabilities, and transaction costs. However, by far the most serious cost of these failures is the lost business that results from customer defection. For service companies, the task of providing error-free services is even more challenging because their intangible nature renders subjective perceptions of quality. Equally troublesome is the uncontrollable element of customer participation in the service process because production and consumption occur as a simultaneous process. Despite these challenges however, service quality and customer satisfaction are closely related constructs. When service providers continuously strive to develop error-free processes, customer satisfaction is sure to follow. Chapter 1: Introduction Many marketers are rethinking their branding because competitive pressures, new channels, and changing customer needs have eroded their brands positions of strength. However, increased marketing expenditures to reposition brands often fail to produce any improvements in either overall image or market share. Experience has shown that companies should focus on achievable rather than aspirational positioning, and that three steps can help ensure success: 1. Ensure relevance to a customers frame of reference. Be fully aware of the brands â€Å"frame of reference† so that a repositioning strategy will resonate with customers. Look at a combination of customers attitudes and the situations in which the brand is used to obtain the most powerful customer insights. 2. Secure the customers â€Å"permission† for the positioning. Recognize that permission amounts to a reasonable and logical extension of the brand in the customers eyes. Leverage a brands unique emotional benefits to carry customers from their current brand perception to the intended one. 3. Deliver on the brands new promise. Identify the pathway of performance â€Å"signals† that will convince customers of the new brand positioning. Develop product/service programs to ensure consistent performance on these signals. Track and assess performance against customer signals prior to launching the new positioning. Adopt an â€Å"interim positioning† to establish brand credibility and performance. An array of factors is requiring marketers today to rethink their brand positioning. Changing customer needs are often eroding the brands established position. At the same time, increasing competitive pressures created by new entrants and product innovations, and the proliferation of new channels and promotional campaigns, are driving marketers back to the drawing board. Many CEOs and CMOs, however, find themselves displeased with the results of their repositioning efforts. Increased marketing expenditures devoted to repositioning brands in the minds of consumers often fail to produce any improvements in either overall image or market share. Why do these well-intentioned efforts turn into marketing failures? While there are many causes, companies often fail to focus on achievable brand positioning rather than branding in service sector. Too often, their efforts target an ambitious goal that outstrips the actual ability of the brand to deliver on what it has promised to customers. Or the goal is too far from customers current brand perception to be a realistic brand objective. For example: In the late 1 980s Oldsmobile wanted to revitalize its brand and gear it to a younger audience. Thus marketers at General Motors launched a creative campaign around the tagline, â€Å"Not your fathers Oldsmobile,† highlighting the cars improved styling and new features. But for many younger consumers, this was too much of a stretch for the brand. The product modifications did not go far enough to meet the needs and expectations of the new customer set they were targeting. As a result, Oldsmobile recognized the need to shift its campaign. Eventually, GM closed its Oldsmobile division. More recently, United Airlines Rising campaign attempted to position the brand as the most passenger-centric airline, with a clear understanding of customer problems and the solutions needed to fix them. The campaign had the effect of raising expectations, which were quickly deflated, however, by the brands inability to deliver against the promises made as part of its bold new positioning platform. Consequently, United was forced to change its central brand message — no longer emphasizing Rising. Many high-tech businesses have recently repositioned themselves as e-business brands. However little effort was made by these brands to clearly differentiate themselves from one another despite the millions of dollars spent on elaborate marketing programs. The net effect, according to their research, has been to sow confusion in the minds of customers, rather than to forge strong brand identities. These examples — and most marketers can cite many others — underscore the imperative to pursue a brand positioning that is eminently achievable, not just attractive. Based on our experience, three steps can help ensure that they make this distinction: 1) ensuring relevance to a customers frame of reference; 2) securing the customers â€Å"permission† for the positioning; and 3) making sure that the brand delivers on its promise. Be Relevant to the Customers Frame of Reference: When repositioning a brand, its essential for marketers to capture not just the emotional and physical needs of the customer but the dynamics of the situation in which those needs occur. We refer to this as the customers â€Å"frame of reference.† For example, while isotonic beverages like Gatorade and Powerade are thirst-quenching drinks, consumers tend to think of them in the broader context of sports, exercise, and physical activity. Importantly, the frame of reference sets the parameters for customers consideration set — the brands they will choose from. Indeed, most customers have a very specific definition of what the brand is and what it can be relative to their frame of reference. Repositioning a brand too far from this frame of reference creates customer confusion that makes a positioning unsuccessful. Attempting to brand Gatorade, for example, within a social, lighthearted context would probably be stretching the brand too far from the current sports/physical activity frame of reference. Similarly, a communications company known for data services for business customers would likely be positioning the brand too far outside of the customers frame of reference if it suddenly tried to launch a â€Å"friends-and-family† calling plan. Being fully aware of the frame of reference for a brand can help ensure that its repositioning strategy will resonate with customers. But the frame of reference is usually a combination of both customers attitudes and the situations in which the brand is used. As a result, we typically find the most powerful customer insights and segmentation come from looking at a combination of these factors In some categories, customers broader attitudes are the dominant factor. How customers think about pet-related brands, for example, can be seen in the context of how they treat their own pets — whether they view them as family members, best friends/companions, or in a less personal way. If customers view pets as family members, the optimal message for the brand will appeal to such human qualities as nurturing and pampering. This â€Å"family member† orientation or frame of reference may help support a brand extension to a full range of pet services, such as grooming and accessories. Other customer needs are not as consistent, but better understood within the context of specific situations or sub-categories. In the field of airline travel, for example, the customers frame of reference may be a function of the type of trip they are taking. The customer who is used to traveling within the U.S. in cramped coach-class conditions, for example, will have a much different set of needs and expectations than the traveler who is used to flying to international destinations with all the comforts of first-class service. As a result, in most instances the frame of reference is built upon a combination of both of the above attitudinal and situational forces. For example, while consumers may generally have a health-conscious attitude about the foods they eat, on certain â€Å"special† occasions they may allow themselves to become more indulgent, creating what we call a â€Å"need state.† A strong brand identity can also help marketers secure the desired permission from consumers. Because Victorias Secret owns or is associated with the notion of intimate moments, for example, it would be easier for that brand to get permission to introduce a new line of lingerie or perfume with a sensual connotation than it would be to launch a line of jeans or handbags. In repositioning, marketers must embrace the idea that they are brand â€Å"stewards,† while customers define their relationship with the brand and determine the basis for the relationship. A steward must spend more time deeply understanding what customers really think about the brand and where potential â€Å"bridges† to growth and new branding exist. For example, Smuckers could leverage the â€Å"wholesome goodness† their loyal customers attribute to them instead of solely focusing on themselves as fruit processors. Marketers should not attempt to cover the waterfront here, but instead focus on the relevant interrelated â€Å"hot buttons† that will clearly convey the message. For example, in the case of a technology brand positioning itself as â€Å"humanizing technology for everyday people,† the strongest set of pathways to the positioning came from product signals such as customized hardware and specific application platforms (e.g., games, household management) rather than from equipment with the latest features and innovative design. The pathway modeling also indicated the strong signal value of the brands customer service representatives having an understanding of an individual customers needs. This important service signal led to the broader customer perception of the brand as caring — an important personality signal for the brand to deliver on its positioning. Additionally, the marketer learned that having technicians follow through with customers to issue resolution w as a critical service signal that led to the broader personality signal of the brand being professional — another key for the brand to live up to its positioning. With these insights, the marketer could allocate resources accordingly, ensuring that the more important signals were being appropriately supported. Develop necessary product/service programs to ensure consistent performance on these signals to the customer. For example, if the brand positioning is built around superior customer satisfaction, but frontline sales people are measured on revenue rather than satisfaction, it is unlikely that consistent performance will be achieved. So, if airline gate agents are the first and most important contact point for customers, they should be empowered to solve customers issues instead of redirecting them to customer service personnel. In the technology brand example, given the importance of the customer service representatives and service technicians, there should be a greater emphasis on the quality of the service delivered rather than on the number of customers that can be serviced over a given time period. Make sure approaches are in place to track and assess your performance against these customer signals prior to the formal launching of the new positioning. Applying rigorous quality assurance procedures to key elements of the new brand experience will often ensure that customers are not disappointed, or fail to have their expectations met. Current data-collection methods allow for rapid response and can be leveraged to determine whether the launch programs are having their desired effect on brand perceptions. Due to the complexities of brand positioning, many marketers are correctly choosing to move to an â€Å"interim positioning.† This interim positioning is designed to establish brand credibility and performance on the road to fully achieving the longer-term aspirational positioning. Such a positioning focuses on those aspects of the brand on which the organization is currently able to deliver. Interim positioning is often essential when a brand stakes out new territory considered â€Å"up market,† addresses an important or longstanding deficiency, or is attempting to redefine its competitive set. As the brand evolves (based on customers changing perceptions), additional components of the new platform can be put into place and confidently communicated to consumers. Target Stores successfully employed an interim positioning as it evolved the brand up market from a position as a discount retailer of national brands to a contemporary â€Å"urban chic† retail brand pro viding good value. The interim positioning emphasized value without sacrificing style and involved specific merchandising efforts such as stylized color blocking and associations with name designers (e.g., Frank Gehry). As the brand evolved to its current positioning, it further emphasized the â€Å"designer† theme in its advertising, often having models wearing various house wares as high fashion. By focusing on achievable instead of aspirational brand positioning, companies can help ensure meaningful market share results while enhancing their brand image. This requires, however that the new brand position fits comfortably within the customers frame of reference, and that it not attempt to overreach. Marketers must also secure the customers permission to extend the brand by building a bridge of relevant benefits to carry customers from the current to the intended brand position. Implementing the performance delivery systems to ensure the brand is able to live up to its new promise is the final critical step in building and executing a successful brand positioning program. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Branding: Definition and benefits Literature gives several definitions of the term brand. The common themes are that a brand is more than just a combination of a name, a design, a symbol or other features that differentiate a good or a service from others. It is a unique set of tangible and intangible added values that are perceived and valued by the customer. In addition a brand is said to have personality, an emotional bond to the customer that grows out of the perceived characteristics. These certain features of a brand grow out of a complex set of added values that can comprise of history and tradition, additional services, marketing messages, quality, popularity of the product amongst a certain group of users (status) and others. These basiss of a brand perception prove that a strong brand can not be established over night The development of a brand takes time, strong financial marketing muscle and good marketing skills such as Insight into customer needs, Ability to offer products or services that meet those needs, Creativity to produce exiting and compelling advertising, Ability to communicate differentiation in a way that customers understand and that motivates them. Without this process they do not have a brand but only a name and a sign for a product. Brands have benefits for both, the brand owners as sellers and the customers: Benefits of a brand for Sellers Customers Identifies the companies products, makes repeat purchases easier Facilitates promotion efforts Fosters brand loyalty stabilises market share Allows to charge premium prices and thus to get better margins Allows to extend the brand to new products, new markets and to new geographic areas Can communicate directly with the customer, reach over the shoulder of the retailer More leverage with middlemen Is more resistant to price competition Can have a long life Is more forgiving of mistakes Helps identify products Helps evaluate the quality of a product Helps to reduce perceived risk in buying, provides assurance of quality, reliability etc. Is dependable (consistent in quality) May offer psychological reward (status symbol) â€Å"rout map† through a range of alternatives Saves customer time Is easier to process mentally With this potential a brand can offer an important competitive advantage for a seller who has decided for a differentiation strategy. Even in markets with many similar products or services a brand can provide some sort of uniqueness to a certain product. Depending from the strength of a brand the branded product thus can be positioned towards a more monopolistic situation. With all these characteristics a brand is important in an organisations marketing mix. Although it is basically a certain feature of the category â€Å"product†, it influences every component of the marketing mix: The product gets a higher value in the perception of the customers. This influences the pricing policy in the way that often a premium can be charged. The promotional strategy and mix will be different because it is more focused on the brand than on the individual product. For instance the introduction of a new product under a well established umbrella brand requires a very different promotion campaign than the introduction of a new brand or an unbranded product. The decision for the place and the marketing channel is influenced because a branded product with a higher perceived value might be placed in an environment that is well related to the brands personality, e.g. gourmet shop vs. food department in a supermarket. 2.2 Branding strategies: Besides the more general decision for the use of brands the decision for the branding strategies is important. There are several aspects to be considered: Ownership of brands Structure of brand systems Regarding the ownership, Dibb (1997) and Kotler (1999) differentiate between five categories: These decisions need to be taken carefully. They offer not only large opportunities but also various risks: A company which has strong manufacturer brands may decide to sell the same or similar products to retailers for use as their own label brands. If consumers become aware of this they might change their perception of the manufacturer brand: â€Å"They get the same product for a lower price under my retailers brand.† or â€Å"They sell the same thing under another name very cheap. This product is not exclusive anymore. I go for another brand then.† Extensive permissions for the licensed use of a strong brand for other products can destroy the value of the brand. Pierre Cardin has lost lots of its luxury appeal since various goods with this name can be found in every department store. The structure of brand systems describes how an organisations products and brands are related. Dibb (1997) distinguishes between: 2.3 Branding for service industries: 2.3.1 Reason for branding services: Although the principles for branding of goods and services are generally the same there occur some differences. These arise from the different natures of both categories. The main differences that influence branding policies are that services Have a changing level of quality, The consumer has to become involved in the consumption of a service actively, They are intangible and not storable. When a brand in general gives the consumer more confidence in his choice this is even more important for services. Their quality and other features are more difficult to asses. Because of their intangibility and complexity it is harder for the customer to distinguish between the offers from the wide range of service companies are working in the market place. This especially applies to the market of accounting, auditing and consulting where consolidation and globalisation increase competition. In an FT-article about branding accounting services (Kelly 1998) a branding expert states that â€Å"more than 70 % of the Fortune 500 companies said branding is increasingly important in helping them to choose where to get a service. They want to be able to tell who is good at what.† 2.3.2 Drivers for the use of branding in the accounting/consulting industry with a focus on the Big Five (former Big Six) firms: The Big Five accounting firms have a long history up to 75 to 100 years. These firms have developed from smaller entities through co-operations and mergers. Often new products and new markets have been developed by â€Å"buying in†, by buying the expertise and the access in the form of other firms. For many small and medium accounting and auditing firms it is attractive to join the association (in most cases) of one of the large players for the following reasons: The form of an association with independent member firms allows to retain a level of individuality although in some cases this is not long-lasting. The membership in an large powerful firm gives a competitive advantage (reputation, access to knowledge, access to new markets, higher market share, cost savings through sharing resources, e.g. for training and recruitment etc.). Partners of these smaller firms are often offered to become partners in the large firm. For a long time the industry did not put much effort in the development of brands. The tradition and long lasting reputation of the Big Five itself gave their names a considerable brand value. For quite a long time this was fairly enough for their purposes. In Kellys (1998) article a professional firms branding expert states that for many years the accountancy firms hid behind the â€Å"convenient parapet† of the Big Six brand label. In the audit market most shareholders were happy to have any audit firm as long as it was from the Big Six.Other factors were legal limitations for advertising. Accounting firms were first allowed to advertise in 1984. That means that marketing and communications focused mainly on activities like excellent work and the power of word of mouth, job advertisements (as the only allowed advertisements they were used as a means to present the company), speaking at conferences, publishing articles in professional journals, co-operating with universities and business schools and so on. Accounting firms saw themselves as a conservative i ndustry with discretion as one of their services. In their minds this didnt go together with an aggressive marketing campaign.In the last years the industry has seen some developments that required new strategies: Globalisation: A global client needs a global auditor because companies are legally required to prepare consolidated financial statements including all subsidies around the world. This is much easier if you have all subsidies audited by the same firm. In addition global clients have a high need for specialised consulting. They often prefer a consultant that is as global as they are to get more expertise and consistency. Stagnation in the core business: The traditional auditing business does not show high growth rates. An individual firms growth can mainly be achieved at the expense of competitors. Growth in consulting services: On the contrary to the auditing business there is an enormous growth for consulting services. The accounting firms have traditionally done some consulting and now they developed these activities aggressively. This had two results: A growing variety of services offered these new products had to be communicated to existing and potential clients Accounting firms came into direct competition with the traditional consulting firms which had their own brands and reputation Need for qualified people: With the development of new products/services all firms needed much more highly qualified people. Recruitment became an important issue. (For example: The German member firm of PricewaterhouseCoopers took on about 1000 new employees in 1998, the first year after the merger.) This led to a competition to attract the best university students. All these factors together increased competition amongst the Big Five. For this industry excellent quality is not a means to get a competitive advantage, it is an important requirement for any success at all. A large variety of services is important; but the customer will perceive it only in the moment he needs a certain service. In this situation the Big Five did not manage to differentiate themselves successfully from competition. A survey conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers during the merger process revealed that â€Å"the business community and the general public did not and do not perceive any compelling differences between and among either the Big Six or the Big Five. Not only did all firms appear to have similar defining qualities, they were also not sending any consistent messages about their organisations to external audiences.†Here a strong brand with a personality and a clear message can be a valuable means for differentiation and thus for gaining a competitive advantage. By now we can say that the Big Five have become aware of this. Now they invest heavily to reposition themselves and to develop their good names to real power brands. 2.4 Benefits of branding: Branding is the process of creating distinctive and durable perceptions in the minds of consumers. A brand is a persistent, unique business identity intertwined with associations of personality, quality, origin, liking and more. Heres why the effort to brand their company or their self pays off.  · Memorability: A brand serves as a convenient container for a reputation and good will. Its hard for customers to go back to that whats its name store or to refer business to the plumber from the Yellow Pages. In addition to an effective company name, it helps when people have material reminders reinforcing the identity of companies they will want to do repeat business with: refrigerator magnets, tote bags, date books, coasters, key rings, first aid kits, etc. Memorability can come from using and sticking with an unusual color combination (FedExs purple and orange), distinctive behavior (the gas station whose attendants literally run to clean your windshield), or with an individual, even a style of clothing (Author Tom Wolfes white suits). Develop their own identifiers and nail them to their company name in the minds of their public.  · Loyalty: When people have a positive experience with a memorable brand, theyre more likely to buy that product or service again than competing brands. People who closely bond with a brand identity are not only more likely to repurchase what they bought, but also to buy related items of the same brand, to recommend the brand to others and to resist the lure of a competitors price cut. The brand identity helps to create and to anchor such loyalty. Consider the legions of car owners who travel up to 2,000 miles at their own expense to attend a Saturn celebration at the companys plant in Spring Hill, Tennessee. Thats loyalty. And supposedly, more people have the motorcycle brand Harley-Davidson tattooed on their body than any other brand name. Thats out-of-this-world loyalty.  · Familiarity. Branding has a big effect on non-customers too. Psychologists have shown that familiarity induces liking. Consequently, people who have never done business with you but have encountered their company identity sufficient times may become willing to recommend them even when they have no personal knowledge of their products or services. Seeing their ads on local buses, having their pen on their desk, reading about them in the Hometown News, they spread the word for them when a friend or colleague asks if they know a ____ and thats what they do.  · Premium image, premium price: Branding can lift what they sell out of the realm of a commodity, so that instead of dealing with price-shoppers they have buyers eager to pay more for their goods than for those of competitors. Think of some peoples willingness to buy the currently in brand of bottled water, versus toting along an unlabeled bottle of the same stuff filled from the office water cooler.The distinctive value inherent in a brand can even lead people to dismiss evidence they would normally use to make buying decisions. I once saw one middle-aged Cambridge, Massachusetts, intellectual argue to several colleagues that Dunkin Donuts coffee tastes better than Starbucks. So contradictory was this claim to the two companies reputations for this demographic group that the colleagues refused to put the matter to a taste test.  · Extensions: With a well-established brand, they can spread the respect they will earn to a related new product, service or location and more easily win acceptance of the newcomer. For instance, when a winery with a good reputation starts up regional winery tours, and then adds foreign ones, each business introduction benefits from the positive perceptions already in place.  · Greater company equity: Making their company into a brand usually means that they can get more money for the company when they decide to sell it. A Coca-Cola executive once said that if all the companys facilities and inventory vanished all around the world, he could walk into any bank and take out a loan based only on the right to the Coca-Cola name and formula.  · Lower marketing expenses: Although they must invest money to create a brand, once its created they can maintain it without having to tell the whole story about the brand every time they market it. For instance, a jingle people in their area have heard a zillion times continues to promote the company when its played without any words.  · For consumers, less risk: When someone feels under pressure to make a wise decision, he or she tends to choose the brand-name supplier over the no-name one. As the saying goes, Theyll never be fired for buying IBM. By building a brand, they fatten their bottom line. 2.5 Brand structures for services industries: As for services, literature suggests to use the companies name a so called corporate brand as the overall family brand for all the services offered. Murphy (1990) calls this the â€Å"monolithic approach†. He argues that especially for companies which offer an enormous array of services (e.g. consultants, banks) corporate names must be used to deliver more generalised benefits of quality, value and integrity. de Chernatony (1996) comes to the conclusion that corporate brands are a crucial means to help make the service offering more tangible in consumers minds and can enhance consumers perceptions and trust in the range of services provided by the company. One disadvantage of corporate brands little opportunity for developing second or sub-brands for differentiated product lines- applies more to branded products. However Murphy (1990) states that many companies have chosen an approach of â€Å"local autonomy but group-wide coherence† as a system whereby individual divisions and products are largely free-standing but mention is made in all literature and on all stationery and products that â€Å"company A is member of the XYZ group†. This approach is very common amongst the Big Five accounting and auditing firms. It allows their national member firms, to exploit the groups brand name and their own (brand) name at the same time. Many member firms that had joined the global firms have lon Importance of Brands and Branding Importance of Brands and Branding Abstract Repetitive failures cost companies millions of dollars in redesign costs, liabilities, and transaction costs. However, by far the most serious cost of these failures is the lost business that results from customer defection. For service companies, the task of providing error-free services is even more challenging because their intangible nature renders subjective perceptions of quality. Equally troublesome is the uncontrollable element of customer participation in the service process because production and consumption occur as a simultaneous process. Despite these challenges however, service quality and customer satisfaction are closely related constructs. When service providers continuously strive to develop error-free processes, customer satisfaction is sure to follow. Chapter 1: Introduction Many marketers are rethinking their branding because competitive pressures, new channels, and changing customer needs have eroded their brands positions of strength. However, increased marketing expenditures to reposition brands often fail to produce any improvements in either overall image or market share. Experience has shown that companies should focus on achievable rather than aspirational positioning, and that three steps can help ensure success: 1. Ensure relevance to a customers frame of reference. Be fully aware of the brands â€Å"frame of reference† so that a repositioning strategy will resonate with customers. Look at a combination of customers attitudes and the situations in which the brand is used to obtain the most powerful customer insights. 2. Secure the customers â€Å"permission† for the positioning. Recognize that permission amounts to a reasonable and logical extension of the brand in the customers eyes. Leverage a brands unique emotional benefits to carry customers from their current brand perception to the intended one. 3. Deliver on the brands new promise. Identify the pathway of performance â€Å"signals† that will convince customers of the new brand positioning. Develop product/service programs to ensure consistent performance on these signals. Track and assess performance against customer signals prior to launching the new positioning. Adopt an â€Å"interim positioning† to establish brand credibility and performance. An array of factors is requiring marketers today to rethink their brand positioning. Changing customer needs are often eroding the brands established position. At the same time, increasing competitive pressures created by new entrants and product innovations, and the proliferation of new channels and promotional campaigns, are driving marketers back to the drawing board. Many CEOs and CMOs, however, find themselves displeased with the results of their repositioning efforts. Increased marketing expenditures devoted to repositioning brands in the minds of consumers often fail to produce any improvements in either overall image or market share. Why do these well-intentioned efforts turn into marketing failures? While there are many causes, companies often fail to focus on achievable brand positioning rather than branding in service sector. Too often, their efforts target an ambitious goal that outstrips the actual ability of the brand to deliver on what it has promised to customers. Or the goal is too far from customers current brand perception to be a realistic brand objective. For example: In the late 1 980s Oldsmobile wanted to revitalize its brand and gear it to a younger audience. Thus marketers at General Motors launched a creative campaign around the tagline, â€Å"Not your fathers Oldsmobile,† highlighting the cars improved styling and new features. But for many younger consumers, this was too much of a stretch for the brand. The product modifications did not go far enough to meet the needs and expectations of the new customer set they were targeting. As a result, Oldsmobile recognized the need to shift its campaign. Eventually, GM closed its Oldsmobile division. More recently, United Airlines Rising campaign attempted to position the brand as the most passenger-centric airline, with a clear understanding of customer problems and the solutions needed to fix them. The campaign had the effect of raising expectations, which were quickly deflated, however, by the brands inability to deliver against the promises made as part of its bold new positioning platform. Consequently, United was forced to change its central brand message — no longer emphasizing Rising. Many high-tech businesses have recently repositioned themselves as e-business brands. However little effort was made by these brands to clearly differentiate themselves from one another despite the millions of dollars spent on elaborate marketing programs. The net effect, according to their research, has been to sow confusion in the minds of customers, rather than to forge strong brand identities. These examples — and most marketers can cite many others — underscore the imperative to pursue a brand positioning that is eminently achievable, not just attractive. Based on our experience, three steps can help ensure that they make this distinction: 1) ensuring relevance to a customers frame of reference; 2) securing the customers â€Å"permission† for the positioning; and 3) making sure that the brand delivers on its promise. Be Relevant to the Customers Frame of Reference: When repositioning a brand, its essential for marketers to capture not just the emotional and physical needs of the customer but the dynamics of the situation in which those needs occur. We refer to this as the customers â€Å"frame of reference.† For example, while isotonic beverages like Gatorade and Powerade are thirst-quenching drinks, consumers tend to think of them in the broader context of sports, exercise, and physical activity. Importantly, the frame of reference sets the parameters for customers consideration set — the brands they will choose from. Indeed, most customers have a very specific definition of what the brand is and what it can be relative to their frame of reference. Repositioning a brand too far from this frame of reference creates customer confusion that makes a positioning unsuccessful. Attempting to brand Gatorade, for example, within a social, lighthearted context would probably be stretching the brand too far from the current sports/physical activity frame of reference. Similarly, a communications company known for data services for business customers would likely be positioning the brand too far outside of the customers frame of reference if it suddenly tried to launch a â€Å"friends-and-family† calling plan. Being fully aware of the frame of reference for a brand can help ensure that its repositioning strategy will resonate with customers. But the frame of reference is usually a combination of both customers attitudes and the situations in which the brand is used. As a result, we typically find the most powerful customer insights and segmentation come from looking at a combination of these factors In some categories, customers broader attitudes are the dominant factor. How customers think about pet-related brands, for example, can be seen in the context of how they treat their own pets — whether they view them as family members, best friends/companions, or in a less personal way. If customers view pets as family members, the optimal message for the brand will appeal to such human qualities as nurturing and pampering. This â€Å"family member† orientation or frame of reference may help support a brand extension to a full range of pet services, such as grooming and accessories. Other customer needs are not as consistent, but better understood within the context of specific situations or sub-categories. In the field of airline travel, for example, the customers frame of reference may be a function of the type of trip they are taking. The customer who is used to traveling within the U.S. in cramped coach-class conditions, for example, will have a much different set of needs and expectations than the traveler who is used to flying to international destinations with all the comforts of first-class service. As a result, in most instances the frame of reference is built upon a combination of both of the above attitudinal and situational forces. For example, while consumers may generally have a health-conscious attitude about the foods they eat, on certain â€Å"special† occasions they may allow themselves to become more indulgent, creating what we call a â€Å"need state.† A strong brand identity can also help marketers secure the desired permission from consumers. Because Victorias Secret owns or is associated with the notion of intimate moments, for example, it would be easier for that brand to get permission to introduce a new line of lingerie or perfume with a sensual connotation than it would be to launch a line of jeans or handbags. In repositioning, marketers must embrace the idea that they are brand â€Å"stewards,† while customers define their relationship with the brand and determine the basis for the relationship. A steward must spend more time deeply understanding what customers really think about the brand and where potential â€Å"bridges† to growth and new branding exist. For example, Smuckers could leverage the â€Å"wholesome goodness† their loyal customers attribute to them instead of solely focusing on themselves as fruit processors. Marketers should not attempt to cover the waterfront here, but instead focus on the relevant interrelated â€Å"hot buttons† that will clearly convey the message. For example, in the case of a technology brand positioning itself as â€Å"humanizing technology for everyday people,† the strongest set of pathways to the positioning came from product signals such as customized hardware and specific application platforms (e.g., games, household management) rather than from equipment with the latest features and innovative design. The pathway modeling also indicated the strong signal value of the brands customer service representatives having an understanding of an individual customers needs. This important service signal led to the broader customer perception of the brand as caring — an important personality signal for the brand to deliver on its positioning. Additionally, the marketer learned that having technicians follow through with customers to issue resolution w as a critical service signal that led to the broader personality signal of the brand being professional — another key for the brand to live up to its positioning. With these insights, the marketer could allocate resources accordingly, ensuring that the more important signals were being appropriately supported. Develop necessary product/service programs to ensure consistent performance on these signals to the customer. For example, if the brand positioning is built around superior customer satisfaction, but frontline sales people are measured on revenue rather than satisfaction, it is unlikely that consistent performance will be achieved. So, if airline gate agents are the first and most important contact point for customers, they should be empowered to solve customers issues instead of redirecting them to customer service personnel. In the technology brand example, given the importance of the customer service representatives and service technicians, there should be a greater emphasis on the quality of the service delivered rather than on the number of customers that can be serviced over a given time period. Make sure approaches are in place to track and assess your performance against these customer signals prior to the formal launching of the new positioning. Applying rigorous quality assurance procedures to key elements of the new brand experience will often ensure that customers are not disappointed, or fail to have their expectations met. Current data-collection methods allow for rapid response and can be leveraged to determine whether the launch programs are having their desired effect on brand perceptions. Due to the complexities of brand positioning, many marketers are correctly choosing to move to an â€Å"interim positioning.† This interim positioning is designed to establish brand credibility and performance on the road to fully achieving the longer-term aspirational positioning. Such a positioning focuses on those aspects of the brand on which the organization is currently able to deliver. Interim positioning is often essential when a brand stakes out new territory considered â€Å"up market,† addresses an important or longstanding deficiency, or is attempting to redefine its competitive set. As the brand evolves (based on customers changing perceptions), additional components of the new platform can be put into place and confidently communicated to consumers. Target Stores successfully employed an interim positioning as it evolved the brand up market from a position as a discount retailer of national brands to a contemporary â€Å"urban chic† retail brand pro viding good value. The interim positioning emphasized value without sacrificing style and involved specific merchandising efforts such as stylized color blocking and associations with name designers (e.g., Frank Gehry). As the brand evolved to its current positioning, it further emphasized the â€Å"designer† theme in its advertising, often having models wearing various house wares as high fashion. By focusing on achievable instead of aspirational brand positioning, companies can help ensure meaningful market share results while enhancing their brand image. This requires, however that the new brand position fits comfortably within the customers frame of reference, and that it not attempt to overreach. Marketers must also secure the customers permission to extend the brand by building a bridge of relevant benefits to carry customers from the current to the intended brand position. Implementing the performance delivery systems to ensure the brand is able to live up to its new promise is the final critical step in building and executing a successful brand positioning program. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Branding: Definition and benefits Literature gives several definitions of the term brand. The common themes are that a brand is more than just a combination of a name, a design, a symbol or other features that differentiate a good or a service from others. It is a unique set of tangible and intangible added values that are perceived and valued by the customer. In addition a brand is said to have personality, an emotional bond to the customer that grows out of the perceived characteristics. These certain features of a brand grow out of a complex set of added values that can comprise of history and tradition, additional services, marketing messages, quality, popularity of the product amongst a certain group of users (status) and others. These basiss of a brand perception prove that a strong brand can not be established over night The development of a brand takes time, strong financial marketing muscle and good marketing skills such as Insight into customer needs, Ability to offer products or services that meet those needs, Creativity to produce exiting and compelling advertising, Ability to communicate differentiation in a way that customers understand and that motivates them. Without this process they do not have a brand but only a name and a sign for a product. Brands have benefits for both, the brand owners as sellers and the customers: Benefits of a brand for Sellers Customers Identifies the companies products, makes repeat purchases easier Facilitates promotion efforts Fosters brand loyalty stabilises market share Allows to charge premium prices and thus to get better margins Allows to extend the brand to new products, new markets and to new geographic areas Can communicate directly with the customer, reach over the shoulder of the retailer More leverage with middlemen Is more resistant to price competition Can have a long life Is more forgiving of mistakes Helps identify products Helps evaluate the quality of a product Helps to reduce perceived risk in buying, provides assurance of quality, reliability etc. Is dependable (consistent in quality) May offer psychological reward (status symbol) â€Å"rout map† through a range of alternatives Saves customer time Is easier to process mentally With this potential a brand can offer an important competitive advantage for a seller who has decided for a differentiation strategy. Even in markets with many similar products or services a brand can provide some sort of uniqueness to a certain product. Depending from the strength of a brand the branded product thus can be positioned towards a more monopolistic situation. With all these characteristics a brand is important in an organisations marketing mix. Although it is basically a certain feature of the category â€Å"product†, it influences every component of the marketing mix: The product gets a higher value in the perception of the customers. This influences the pricing policy in the way that often a premium can be charged. The promotional strategy and mix will be different because it is more focused on the brand than on the individual product. For instance the introduction of a new product under a well established umbrella brand requires a very different promotion campaign than the introduction of a new brand or an unbranded product. The decision for the place and the marketing channel is influenced because a branded product with a higher perceived value might be placed in an environment that is well related to the brands personality, e.g. gourmet shop vs. food department in a supermarket. 2.2 Branding strategies: Besides the more general decision for the use of brands the decision for the branding strategies is important. There are several aspects to be considered: Ownership of brands Structure of brand systems Regarding the ownership, Dibb (1997) and Kotler (1999) differentiate between five categories: These decisions need to be taken carefully. They offer not only large opportunities but also various risks: A company which has strong manufacturer brands may decide to sell the same or similar products to retailers for use as their own label brands. If consumers become aware of this they might change their perception of the manufacturer brand: â€Å"They get the same product for a lower price under my retailers brand.† or â€Å"They sell the same thing under another name very cheap. This product is not exclusive anymore. I go for another brand then.† Extensive permissions for the licensed use of a strong brand for other products can destroy the value of the brand. Pierre Cardin has lost lots of its luxury appeal since various goods with this name can be found in every department store. The structure of brand systems describes how an organisations products and brands are related. Dibb (1997) distinguishes between: 2.3 Branding for service industries: 2.3.1 Reason for branding services: Although the principles for branding of goods and services are generally the same there occur some differences. These arise from the different natures of both categories. The main differences that influence branding policies are that services Have a changing level of quality, The consumer has to become involved in the consumption of a service actively, They are intangible and not storable. When a brand in general gives the consumer more confidence in his choice this is even more important for services. Their quality and other features are more difficult to asses. Because of their intangibility and complexity it is harder for the customer to distinguish between the offers from the wide range of service companies are working in the market place. This especially applies to the market of accounting, auditing and consulting where consolidation and globalisation increase competition. In an FT-article about branding accounting services (Kelly 1998) a branding expert states that â€Å"more than 70 % of the Fortune 500 companies said branding is increasingly important in helping them to choose where to get a service. They want to be able to tell who is good at what.† 2.3.2 Drivers for the use of branding in the accounting/consulting industry with a focus on the Big Five (former Big Six) firms: The Big Five accounting firms have a long history up to 75 to 100 years. These firms have developed from smaller entities through co-operations and mergers. Often new products and new markets have been developed by â€Å"buying in†, by buying the expertise and the access in the form of other firms. For many small and medium accounting and auditing firms it is attractive to join the association (in most cases) of one of the large players for the following reasons: The form of an association with independent member firms allows to retain a level of individuality although in some cases this is not long-lasting. The membership in an large powerful firm gives a competitive advantage (reputation, access to knowledge, access to new markets, higher market share, cost savings through sharing resources, e.g. for training and recruitment etc.). Partners of these smaller firms are often offered to become partners in the large firm. For a long time the industry did not put much effort in the development of brands. The tradition and long lasting reputation of the Big Five itself gave their names a considerable brand value. For quite a long time this was fairly enough for their purposes. In Kellys (1998) article a professional firms branding expert states that for many years the accountancy firms hid behind the â€Å"convenient parapet† of the Big Six brand label. In the audit market most shareholders were happy to have any audit firm as long as it was from the Big Six.Other factors were legal limitations for advertising. Accounting firms were first allowed to advertise in 1984. That means that marketing and communications focused mainly on activities like excellent work and the power of word of mouth, job advertisements (as the only allowed advertisements they were used as a means to present the company), speaking at conferences, publishing articles in professional journals, co-operating with universities and business schools and so on. Accounting firms saw themselves as a conservative i ndustry with discretion as one of their services. In their minds this didnt go together with an aggressive marketing campaign.In the last years the industry has seen some developments that required new strategies: Globalisation: A global client needs a global auditor because companies are legally required to prepare consolidated financial statements including all subsidies around the world. This is much easier if you have all subsidies audited by the same firm. In addition global clients have a high need for specialised consulting. They often prefer a consultant that is as global as they are to get more expertise and consistency. Stagnation in the core business: The traditional auditing business does not show high growth rates. An individual firms growth can mainly be achieved at the expense of competitors. Growth in consulting services: On the contrary to the auditing business there is an enormous growth for consulting services. The accounting firms have traditionally done some consulting and now they developed these activities aggressively. This had two results: A growing variety of services offered these new products had to be communicated to existing and potential clients Accounting firms came into direct competition with the traditional consulting firms which had their own brands and reputation Need for qualified people: With the development of new products/services all firms needed much more highly qualified people. Recruitment became an important issue. (For example: The German member firm of PricewaterhouseCoopers took on about 1000 new employees in 1998, the first year after the merger.) This led to a competition to attract the best university students. All these factors together increased competition amongst the Big Five. For this industry excellent quality is not a means to get a competitive advantage, it is an important requirement for any success at all. A large variety of services is important; but the customer will perceive it only in the moment he needs a certain service. In this situation the Big Five did not manage to differentiate themselves successfully from competition. A survey conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers during the merger process revealed that â€Å"the business community and the general public did not and do not perceive any compelling differences between and among either the Big Six or the Big Five. Not only did all firms appear to have similar defining qualities, they were also not sending any consistent messages about their organisations to external audiences.†Here a strong brand with a personality and a clear message can be a valuable means for differentiation and thus for gaining a competitive advantage. By now we can say that the Big Five have become aware of this. Now they invest heavily to reposition themselves and to develop their good names to real power brands. 2.4 Benefits of branding: Branding is the process of creating distinctive and durable perceptions in the minds of consumers. A brand is a persistent, unique business identity intertwined with associations of personality, quality, origin, liking and more. Heres why the effort to brand their company or their self pays off.  · Memorability: A brand serves as a convenient container for a reputation and good will. Its hard for customers to go back to that whats its name store or to refer business to the plumber from the Yellow Pages. In addition to an effective company name, it helps when people have material reminders reinforcing the identity of companies they will want to do repeat business with: refrigerator magnets, tote bags, date books, coasters, key rings, first aid kits, etc. Memorability can come from using and sticking with an unusual color combination (FedExs purple and orange), distinctive behavior (the gas station whose attendants literally run to clean your windshield), or with an individual, even a style of clothing (Author Tom Wolfes white suits). Develop their own identifiers and nail them to their company name in the minds of their public.  · Loyalty: When people have a positive experience with a memorable brand, theyre more likely to buy that product or service again than competing brands. People who closely bond with a brand identity are not only more likely to repurchase what they bought, but also to buy related items of the same brand, to recommend the brand to others and to resist the lure of a competitors price cut. The brand identity helps to create and to anchor such loyalty. Consider the legions of car owners who travel up to 2,000 miles at their own expense to attend a Saturn celebration at the companys plant in Spring Hill, Tennessee. Thats loyalty. And supposedly, more people have the motorcycle brand Harley-Davidson tattooed on their body than any other brand name. Thats out-of-this-world loyalty.  · Familiarity. Branding has a big effect on non-customers too. Psychologists have shown that familiarity induces liking. Consequently, people who have never done business with you but have encountered their company identity sufficient times may become willing to recommend them even when they have no personal knowledge of their products or services. Seeing their ads on local buses, having their pen on their desk, reading about them in the Hometown News, they spread the word for them when a friend or colleague asks if they know a ____ and thats what they do.  · Premium image, premium price: Branding can lift what they sell out of the realm of a commodity, so that instead of dealing with price-shoppers they have buyers eager to pay more for their goods than for those of competitors. Think of some peoples willingness to buy the currently in brand of bottled water, versus toting along an unlabeled bottle of the same stuff filled from the office water cooler.The distinctive value inherent in a brand can even lead people to dismiss evidence they would normally use to make buying decisions. I once saw one middle-aged Cambridge, Massachusetts, intellectual argue to several colleagues that Dunkin Donuts coffee tastes better than Starbucks. So contradictory was this claim to the two companies reputations for this demographic group that the colleagues refused to put the matter to a taste test.  · Extensions: With a well-established brand, they can spread the respect they will earn to a related new product, service or location and more easily win acceptance of the newcomer. For instance, when a winery with a good reputation starts up regional winery tours, and then adds foreign ones, each business introduction benefits from the positive perceptions already in place.  · Greater company equity: Making their company into a brand usually means that they can get more money for the company when they decide to sell it. A Coca-Cola executive once said that if all the companys facilities and inventory vanished all around the world, he could walk into any bank and take out a loan based only on the right to the Coca-Cola name and formula.  · Lower marketing expenses: Although they must invest money to create a brand, once its created they can maintain it without having to tell the whole story about the brand every time they market it. For instance, a jingle people in their area have heard a zillion times continues to promote the company when its played without any words.  · For consumers, less risk: When someone feels under pressure to make a wise decision, he or she tends to choose the brand-name supplier over the no-name one. As the saying goes, Theyll never be fired for buying IBM. By building a brand, they fatten their bottom line. 2.5 Brand structures for services industries: As for services, literature suggests to use the companies name a so called corporate brand as the overall family brand for all the services offered. Murphy (1990) calls this the â€Å"monolithic approach†. He argues that especially for companies which offer an enormous array of services (e.g. consultants, banks) corporate names must be used to deliver more generalised benefits of quality, value and integrity. de Chernatony (1996) comes to the conclusion that corporate brands are a crucial means to help make the service offering more tangible in consumers minds and can enhance consumers perceptions and trust in the range of services provided by the company. One disadvantage of corporate brands little opportunity for developing second or sub-brands for differentiated product lines- applies more to branded products. However Murphy (1990) states that many companies have chosen an approach of â€Å"local autonomy but group-wide coherence† as a system whereby individual divisions and products are largely free-standing but mention is made in all literature and on all stationery and products that â€Å"company A is member of the XYZ group†. This approach is very common amongst the Big Five accounting and auditing firms. It allows their national member firms, to exploit the groups brand name and their own (brand) name at the same time. Many member firms that had joined the global firms have lon

Examining The Psychological Offender Profiling Investigation Criminology Essay

Examining The Psychological Offender Profiling Investigation Criminology Essay Offender Profiling is an investigative tool that is used by psychologists to help them work out exactly why a particular crime has been committed and why a criminal is behaving in a certain way. This tool is used to research the types of crimes people are committing and how an offender picks his or her victim. This method of research also helps the Criminal Justice System at a significant degree. It enables them to make a decision based upon the research and facts, which makes the overall verdict more ethical. The aim of Offender Profiling is to go beyond the facts and develop a hypothesis about the offender. Holmes Holmes (1996) suggests three objectives to meet this aim. These are to: 1) to provide the police with basic information about the certain personality attributes of the offender such as age, family, ethnicity, employment and marital status, 2) to suggest any belongings the offender may have that would lead him to committing this crime and 3) to provide interviewing strategies and suggestions the police may use when questioning a suspect. The British approach on Offender Profiling is very different to the American approach. The British approach does not categorise crimes and try to fit them into theories but takes a more scientific approach to analysing every possible data of a crime and using these to develop the profile, whereas the American approach (FBI) to developing an offender profile is different to this. Their approach has been developed from an initial sample of interviews with 36 convicted serial sexual murderers, together with detailed information from crime scenes i.e. the location and timing of the crimes, medical examination reports, any crimes that have already been committed in the neighbourhood, the victims whereabouts and the amount of forensic awareness shown by the offender.  [1]  This is done in order to help them establish a bigger picture of the crime and help them identify the psychology behind it. Offender Profiling was first used in the Second World War to see if there were any weaknesses that can be exploited and enhanced for the future. For example, Langer conducted a profiling on Hitler and concluded that if he had lost the Second World War he would commit suicide. He was correct. After the defeat in 1945, Adolf Hitler committed suicide and passed away. Psychiatrists believe that the basic assumption of Offender Profiling is that the offenders have a certain fingerprint, in other words, certain behaviour at the crime scene which is a reflection of their personality and characteristics. For example, a criminal tying up the victim the psychological fingerprint behind this would be that the offender wants control and dominance over the offender in order to defeat them. Another example can be shown from a rape case. When an offender has committed rape they would wash the victim. The psychological fingerprint behind this would be that the criminal either feels some sort of remorse so he/she wants cleanse or that they want the case to be so inconspicuous that they even remove the victims pubic hair. How Offender Profiling influenced Courtroom The courtroom is very important in the British Criminal Justice System. There are two types of profiling techniques that are used in trials. The first is what we call deductive Offender Profiling, which concerns itself with the particular behavioural evidence of a case. Second is inductive profiling which assumes that when a criminal commits a crime, he or she will have a similar background and motive to others who have committed a similar crime. There are related problems of the use of Offender Profiling in the courtroom. The first is unawareness about the nature of Offender Profiling and physical evidence. The second is when the profilers are too zeal. When these two problems cross in a single case, it may be that an offender profiler gives opinions with strong confidence about circumstances and behaviours that are assumed and not established.  [2]   Interviewing Offender Profiling can help the CJS and the police in terms of suggesting effective ways of interviewing, related to specific criminal types. Not all will react to questioning in the same manner. An effective way of questioning for one person may be ineffective for someone else. This is because not all murderers commit murder for the same reason. This means depending on their reasons for committing a crime, they would need different strategies of questioning. An example can be shown by the murder of a young girl and her boyfriend in which the stepfather was the main suspect but there was no forensic evidence to convict him. When he was questioned in the usual way, he denied any involvement. The profiler suggested that as he was a man who had a great requirement for control, it would be good to ask for his help in solving the crime. Pretending to be doing this, the suspect was given lots of photographs of the crime scene and thinking he was in control of the investigation, became so o ccupied in talking about the case that he revealed more and more his knowledge with the crime until he eventually gave up and confessed.  [3]   Victims Offender Profiling certainly impacts victims in various ways. The most evident is that it helps police find their offender. The victim may be traumatised as a result of the offence and may feel threatened that the perpetrator will return therefore being scared to leave their home. If the offender is convicted, the victim will be relieved and at least try and continue with their normal life. Mental health Ressler (1992) says that mental health professionals have an interest in offender profiling and have also helped research in the study of criminal psychology. Thus, it is suggested that clinicians could be used to help the Criminal Justice System in suggesting ways of profiling and ways of treatment. Police Profiling can give the police a new or different direction in their attempt to catch the offender by reducing the list of suspects. This is by giving them information about the choice of victim, the location, anything that was said by the offender and the nature of the offense. These things may help to give the offender more of a personality, and thus help the police in their chase of the offender. Profiling is not aimed to tell the police who actually committed an offence; instead it aims to suggest to them some personality and demographic characteristics that the offender is likely to possess. If for example the police are investigating a number of rapes in the same area, they will be pleased to identify whether the same person has committed them. They will need to know if they should be look ­ing for one or several offenders. In addition, a profile can help police in reducing their list of suspects and to avoid wasting time on enquiries which are likely to be useless. If a suspe ct of the police does not match any of the profilers predictions then the police might spend less time following that particular person. In some case the profile may well fit someone whom the police already suspect and will therefore allow the police officers to concentrate their investigations on the most likely suspect. How Offender Profiling was used in real life cases During the period 1982-86, 24 sexual assaults occurred in North London near to railways. It was believed that one man committed all these crimes, though on some occasions he had someone that helped him out. Between 1985 and 1986 three murders occurred, and forensic evidence together with certain aspects of the attackers suggested that there were links between the rapes and murders. In 1986, police forces in South England were struggling to find the Railway Rapist, which then turned in to the Railway Killer. Dr. David Canter, a psychologist and criminologist was invited to compose British crimes first offender profile. When the offender, John Duffy, was later arrested and convicted, it turned out that 13 of Canters 17 announcements about the offender were correct. The case of Adrian Babb is another instance where Offender Profiling has been successful and therefore very helpful to the CJS. Between 1986 and 1988, seven attacks on elderly women took place in tower blocks in south Birmingham. Women aged 70-80 were followed into the lifts by a stocky young man who overwhelmed them and took them to the top floor of the tower block, where he raped them and escaped. The same patterns of the crimes suggested that the offense was committed by the same man. Because the criminal had a limited range of locations, victims and actions, this suggested that the offender was operating a limited world, wherein he was constrained in his actions. Victims reported the offender as black, athletic, without body scent and carrying a sports bag. He had no attempt to hide himself, thus he had no fear of being recognised and convicted. Canter labelled his approach Investigative Psychology, where he believes that offender goes beyond what he originally thought of Offender Profiling and covers a branch of applied psychology. Canter has a certain strategy that he uses within this investigation which helps him in finding the offender. He firstly tries to understand the types of crime individuals are likely to become involved in and the way the crime will be carried out. After that he tries to understand the way a criminal behaviour processes and how the crime mirrors their behaviour in their daily life. These led him to believe that there are associated activities that happen when a crime is being committed. He also believes that actions of offenders at the crime scene are likely to reveal something about their background. The important attributes Canter looks out for within his research are: location, biography, social and personal characteristics and occupational/ educational history. One other aspect of profiling is the methodological collection of data and statistical analysis. An example of this is when Canter and Heritage (1990) combed through the victim statements of 66 UK sexual assaults and with the use of statistics, they were able to identify clear patterns in the form of the attack. It is possible to group how the victim is treated in three ways, each giving clue to the offender. First is when the criminal treats the victim as a person this is when a conversation is involved in the duration of the attack, asking things to the with the womans love and personal life or complimenting her on her looks and body. This type of criminal believes that he is developing some sort of relationship with the victim and incorrectly thinks that the sexual assault produces closeness. The second is when the victim is treated as an object in this case, the victim may be blindfolded, while the offender tends to be covered. The offender here will mainly be concerned with control in the interaction of the rape. The third and final is when the victim is treated as vehicle when this is the case the offender uses violence to degrade the victim. The actions here are a mirror of the offenders anger and aggression. The third real life case I will discuss in the report is the case of Rachel Nickell, wherein Offender Profiling was used to help the police officers find the offender and help the CJS make a fair verdict. On 15th July 1992, a 23 year old model, Rachel Nickell, was walking with her son and her dog in Wimbledon Common when she was attacked and brutally killed. Alex (Nickells two year old son) was thrown into the bushes while Nickell was sexually assaulted, stabbed 49 times and had her throat cut. Another hiker who was also walking in the Common discovered Alex clinging to his mothers dead body, crying and pleading with her to get up. It was later found that Alex stuck a piece of paper on his mothers forehead in place of a plaster in attempt to make his mum better. The police tried their best to find the criminal but failed to do so. They felt under pressure and as a result, turned to a Forensic psychologist named Paul Britton, an expert in the science of Offender Profiling, and asked him to conduct an offender profile for this crime case. Britton had previously helped the police identify the killers of Jamie Bulger in Liverpool, and had worked on the Frederick West House of Horrors murders in Gloucester, and was felt to be the right man for the job.  [4]  A suspect was eventually identified by Britton and it was noted that he seemed to fit the profile well. A complex operation was planned by Britton, which was aiming to tempt Stagg into a confession using an undercover female police officer who faked a romantic interest in Stagg and a liking for Satanism. However, despite her efforts Stagg did not confess. Effectiveness of Offender Profiling in each case Canter (1990) is the UKs leading profiling expert; his approach looks out for the behaviour of the offender during the crime. In his approach no assumptions are made about the criminal and the approach relies heavily on facts. Canter believes that his approach has several advantages over crime scene analysis. First, his type of Offender Profiling draws directly on widely known psychological concepts. Second, his approach could be used extensively and should not be limited to just rape and murder. Finally, in his approach there is less chance for biased decision making. Canter argues that his approach is more scientific than the FBIs and as a result, his profiles are more useful in helping the police catch the actual offender and the CJS to make a fair verdict.  [5]   John Duffy, Railway Rapist For John Duffys case, Canter created a profile with the following key facts belonging to the rapist: The rapist would live in the area near some of the attacks. He would be living with his girlfriend or wife and will not have a child. He would be in his late 20s; his blood fluids would contain ABO antigens and he would be right-handed. He would be skilled in his job and work only at the weekends. He knows the railway system very well. He would have a criminal record of violence. This profile represents the use of behavioural characteristics to search for a criminal instead of pure forensic evidence from the crime scene. Out of 2000 suspects, Canter pinpointed the 1505th suspect, John Duffy, who was the actual offender. Duffy fit most of the profile, including a criminal conviction for raping his wife. The profile Canter developed matched 13 out of 17 details about Duffys characteristics. The remaining that didnt match Duffy was the biological characteristics; the offender was a lot shorter than victims remembered and many had described him as having black or even ginger hair. From the accuracy, it is evident that Offender Profiling has been a very effective investigative tool to use in this crime case.  [6]   Adrian Babb For Adrian Babbs case, Canter created a profile with the following key facts belonging to the attacker: Not violent because force is only used when necessary Athletic body suggests that that offender has an interest of solitary sports e.g. swimming or body-building Cleanliness and organisation suggests that he was obsessive No attempt to cover him or hide forensic evidence suggests that he was not aware of the procedures and therefore has not convicted before for this type of crime Ease with elderly women suggests that he dealt with elderly people in non-offence background Knowledge of tower blocks suggests that he lives in one Based on this profile, a police officer searched through the records of minor sexual offenders and found a match between Babbs fingerprints and those at the crime scene. It is evident that Offender Profiling has been a very effective tool to utilise in this case because it has helped the police catch the offender. From the above, we can see that Canters predictions were very accurate. As Canter clearly stated in the profile, the offender must have had no forensic awareness or knowledge of the likely procedures as he made no attempt to disguise himself. This was a very valuable point that led to the arrest of Babb. As Canter also predicted, Babb attended the swimming pool very often hence the cleanliness and the lack of body odour and also looked after sessions for the elderly. Rachel Nickell Brittons first task was to set up a clear picture of the kind of person Rachel was by interviewing her family and friends. His initial thoughts related to Alex, Nickells son. The fact that Alex was not harmed meant that Rachel had not known the offender and so this was not likely to be a domestic murder. The nature of the attack pointed towards a violent sexual psychopath. Based on his past interactions with sexual killers, Britton drew up a profile of the offender with the following points: The offender would be aged between 20 and 30 because the majority of sexual attacks are committed by young men He would not have the ability to relate to women in normal conversation. He would either have a history of failed or unsatisfactory relationships or no relationship history He would suffer from some form of sexual dysfunction He would be attracted to pornography which would play a role in his sexual fantasy life He would only have average intelligence and education because the attack was brutal If employed, he would work in an unskilled or labouring occupation He would be single and have a relatively isolated lifestyle He would have lonely hobbies and interests He would live within easy walking distance of Wimbledon Common and would be thoroughly familiar with it He would be very likely to kill another young woman at some point in the future. Colin Stagg was the named that cropped up four times after the murderers profile was broadcasted on Crimewatch. Stagg fitted Brittons profile precisely. During the police interview Stagg denied any involvement in the crime, but his answers to questions made stronger the match with Brittons profile. The police could find no physical evidence connecting Stagg to the murder but he remained the number one suspect. The complex operation which was planned by Britton had an adverse effect on the whole case. The evidence of Brittons profile and the information obtained from Lizzie James was thrown out of court and the defence argued that Brittons evidence was speculative and supported only by his instinct. Stagg was set free and Rachels killer was never found. This shows how Offender Profiling can be misused, misunderstood and misinterpreted if not conducted in a scientific way. Conclusion There are many arguments discussing the effectiveness of Offender Profiling, some of which are positive and some which are negative. Even though there have been less publicised cases where Offender Profiling was less accurate e.g. Copson (1995), it can still be a very useful tool in terms of helping the police find the offender. However it is important for the police to be careful not to be blinded to other possibilities. Occasionally criminals do not fit the profile and over use could lead to misjudgement of the Criminal Justice System. Offender profiling is more prediction than science based and therefore the validity is debated. Due to the fact that there is no hard evidence to work from, it is not possible to gain a definite result. Stereotype can be another factor that affects the way a criminal is profiled. For example, it may be that most rapists are single men that live on their own or with their parents but this may not always be the case and could lead to an inaccurate prof ile being created if the criminal is a married man who lives with his family. To assess the effectiveness of this investigative tool different research has been conducted. For example, Britton (1992) sent out questionnaires to the Criminal Investigation Department to identify the number of cases where an offender had been profiled led to arrest. He found that the results were mostly negative in the sense that most cases that were profiled did not lead to arrest. However, the majority of the respondents commented that it could have had a lot of potential in their experience of Offender Profiling.  [7]